Blue is one of the primary colors and it can be found in nature in things like the sky, water, and some flowers. But the true, vibrant blue pigment that we think of as “blue” today had to be manufactured and discovered. For most of human history, blue pigments were rare and expensive to produce. So where does the color blue we know today come from? The origin of the vivid blue pigment is a fascinating story of science, global trade, and serendipity.
Early Blue Pigments
In ancient times, blue pigments were extremely rare. The earliest humans used black charcoal and earth pigments like red ochre to create art. Blue did not make an appearance in cave paintings, likely because no suitable blue pigments were available. The rarest sources of blue came from semiprecious lapis lazuli and azurite. Lapis was imported from Afghanistan as early as 6000 BC and used by the Egyptians, Mesopotamians, and later the Romans. However, the cost of importing made these pigments extremely expensive.
A synthetic version of blue pigment was first manufactured by the Egyptians in 2500 BC. It was made by heating sand, copper, and alkali together to create Egyptian blue. This was the first manufactured pigment created. Egyptian blue produces a greenish-blue color. It was used for centuries throughout the Mediterranean until a method of producing a deeper blue was found.
The Hunt for a Perfect Blue
During the Renaissance, there was a huge resurgence of interest in arts and culture. A vibrant, deep blue was in high demand for paintings. But the existing pigment options were still limiting. Ultramarine, made from grinding the semi-precious lapis lazuli into powder, produced the best blue but was incredibly expensive. Azurite also made a decent blue, but it tended to degrade over time. The cheapest option was smalt, made by combining ground blue glass with potassium. But smalt had a tendency to turn black over time. Alchemists and paint makers searched for better ways to produce a stable, vivid blue.
A competition was held in 1704 by the German paint maker Johann Jacob Diesbach to find a replacement for ultramarine blue. By accident, Diesbach discovered a method for creating Prussian blue, also known as Berlin blue. Diesbach was attempting to create a red lake pigment by mixing potassium with blood. However, the potash he used was contaminated and turned the pigment blue instead. Though originally a failed experiment, Diesbach’s Prussian blue turned out to be much more lightfast and stable than other pigments. By the 1720s, it was being widely used by painters.
| Pigment Name | Source | Color Produced |
|---|---|---|
| Ultramarine | Lapis lazuli gemstone | Deep blue |
| Azurite | Mineral | Blue |
| Smalt | Ground blue glass & potassium | Blue turns black |
| Egyptian blue | Sand, copper, alkali heated | Greenish blue |
| Prussian blue | Contaminated red lake pigment | Stable vivid blue |
The Ultramarine Revolution
Prussian blue was an important discovery, but ultramarine still remained the most brilliant blue available. Producing it was extraordinarily labor intensive. Lapis lazuli stones had to be mined in Afghanistan, then ground by hand to powder and mixed with oils and wax to produce the pigment. Plus, demand for paintings was increasing during the Renaissance. The expense meant ultramarine was restricted only to the most important commissions. Painters would reserve ultramarine to depict the Virgin Mary’s robe, since its stunning color was considered sacred. Lesser pigments had to suffice for the rest of a painting.
In 1826, the Societé d’Encouragement poured resources into holding a competition to develop a synthetic version of ultramarine. French chemist Jean-Baptiste Guimet won the prize in 1828 for discovering a method similar to the process still used today. His method involves heating kaolin (a white clay), sulfur, sodium carbonate, and charcoal together at precise temperatures. Different variations produce shades ranging from greenish blue to violet-tinged. Now high quality, mass produced ultramarine was available at a fraction of the cost. The vivid new pigment quickly revolutionized the art world.
The Invention of Cobalt Blue
Another alternative to expensive lapis lazuli came from the toxic element cobalt. Cobalt compounds have been used to color glass and ceramics since ancient Egypt and China. But creating a stable paint pigment proved difficult. In the early 1800s, Swedish chemist Sven Rinman and French chemist Louis Jacques Thénard both developed a cobalt blue pigment by heating cobalt compounds. Their methods produced a rich blue but it was too dark for painting.
In 1802, French painter Louis Jacques Thénard discovered a breakthrough. He developed a process using cobalt oxide, aluminum oxide, and potassium to produce an intense sky-blue cobalt pigment, coined Thénard’s blue. It became popular with painters for its stability and lovely hue. By the 1870s, French cobalt manufacturer Léo Quincy developed an even clearer, lighter blue pigment that created its namesake, cobalt blue. The vibrant cobalt pigments have been used by famous artists like Van Gogh.
The Rise of Synthetic Blues
The 19th century was a golden age for blue pigments. Chemists began rapidly developing a rainbow of blues by experimenting with metal oxides, cobalt, and synthetic dyes. Prussian blue and cobalt blue made vibrant blues economically available to more artists. Chrome-based pigments like cerulean blue created cooler greenish blues. New dyes like indigo gave painters brighter dark blues. Cobalt violet, French ultramarine, and manganese blue provided new takes on purple-blue hues. The origins of many modern blue paints can be traced back to this boom in synthetic color.
Blue Today
Today blue is one of the most commonly available colors across paints, textiles, and electronics. But it took millennia of mining rare minerals and effort by alchemists to develop the vibrant blues we know. The latest revolution came with the development of phthalocyanine dyes in the 1930s, which make some of the most stable intense blues. Their discovery at ICI revolutionized printing and they remain ubiquitous in paints, inks, textiles, and beyond.
So while blue is everywhere today, its origin was in semi-precious stones mined from a single source in Afghanistan. From grinding lapis lazuli by hand to large-scale chemical manufacturing, blue pigments have come a long way. The quest for new blues also gave rise to synthetic chemistry and modern efforts to closely control color. Blue’s history and origins remain a compelling story about humanity’s relationship with color.
Conclusion
The origin of the vibrant blues found in paints and dyes today was a long scientific journey spanning millennia and civilizations. For most of human history, there were no suitable blue pigments available. Rare and expensive semiprecious stones provided the only blue, reserved only for the most prestigious uses. Chemists and alchemists worked hard to unlock the secrets of producing blues synthetically. A few serendipitous accidents led to key pigments like Prussian blue and cobalt blue. But it wasn’t until the 19th and 20th centuries that affordable, stable vivid blues became widely available, revolutionizing painting, clothing, and more. So while blue seems ubiquitous today, its origin was in rarities like lapis lazuli only found in one region of the world. Our modern blues are the result of ancient global trade, scientific persistence, and some fortunate accidents along the way. The history of blue reflects humanity’s endless fascination with color and the long effort to bring vibrant colors into our lives.
