Movies began as black and white productions, with no color at all. However, over time, movies evolved to include color through various processes and techniques. Understanding the history of color in cinema provides insight into how filmmaking and technology have progressed.
The Beginnings of Black and White Movies
In the earliest days of filmmaking, all movies were in black and white. This was due to technological limitations of the time. The first films were created in the late 1880s, after the invention of celluloid film and the kinetoscope by Thomas Edison and William Dickson. Their kinetoscope was only capable of showing short, silent, monochromatic moving images.
When the cinématographe was invented by the Lumière brothers in 1895, it allowed for projection of recordings onto a screen for a larger audience. However, the projected images were still monochrome. At this time, color photography did exist, but there was no feasible way to project color images in motion.
For several decades, black and white was the standard for cinema. Iconic films like The Wizard of Oz (1939), Casablanca (1942), and Psycho (1960) were originally shot and projected in black and white. It wasn’t until the early 20th century that color in movies started to become more prevalent.
The First Color Processes
There were a few early processes that allowed limited use of color in movies:
| Process | Description | First Used |
|---|---|---|
| Hand coloring | Each frame painted by hand | 1895 |
| Stencil coloring | Stencils used to apply color | Early 1900s |
| Tinting | Whole scene toned in one color | Early 1900s |
| Toning | Altered tint for each scene | Early 1900s |
These provided splashes of color, but were very labor intensive and not natural looking. The real push for color came with the rise of bigger, more spectacular films in the 1920s and 1930s along with technological advancements.
Development of Subtractive Color Processes
Two major processes were developed that allowed full color motion pictures through the use of subtractive color: Technicolor and Cinecolor.
Technicolor
The Technicolor process was developed in 1916 by Herbert Kalmus, Daniel Comstock, and W. Burton Wescott. It was refined over decades and went through various iterations, but the original process involved shooting with a specialized camera that split light into two beams. Each beam passed through a color filter and was recorded on a separate strip of black and white film. This resulted in two film negatives, one recording blue/green light and one recording red/orange.
After development, the negatives were printed onto matrices, dyed with their respective colors, and transferred onto a blank film strip to create a full color positive print. The dye transfer process allowed for vibrant, saturated colors.
Disney’s Flowers and Trees (1932) was the first full-color cartoon short. Becky Sharp (1935) was the first feature film in Technicolor. Use of the process grew in the late 1930s and 1940s, especially in musicals and animated films. Notable examples include The Wizard of Oz (1939), Gone with the Wind (1939), and Snow White and the Seven Dwarfs (1937).
Cinecolor
The Cinecolor process was invented in 1932 by Wilfred Periera. It used a special camera that exposed two frames simultaneously through red and green filters. After processing the film, the image was tinted orange and cyan, and superimposed to produce a full color result. Although it did not yield results as spectacular as Technicolor dye transfer, it was a simpler, lower cost alternative used by some studios in the 1930s and 1940s before color negatives became mainstream.
Technological Advances Allow Color Film and Printing
In the 1940s, Kodak developed multilayer color film stocks that allowed all color information to be recorded onto a single strip. This meant cameras no longer needed to be specially equipped for color filming. However, the color dyes in these negative films were not suitable for direct projection. Films still needed to go through complex developing and printing processes to fill theaters with color.
Kodak later introduced Eastmancolor in 1950, which included both camera negative films and color print films. This system simplified color processing. Cameras could now shoot in color and final prints could be optically printed from the negatives, bypassing the need for extra matrices and dye transfers. This advancement helped color become the new norm by the middle of the century.
Explosion of Color Films
The 1950s brought an explosion of color films in a wide range of genres:
| Film | Year | Significance |
|---|---|---|
| An American in Paris | 1951 | First color film to win Best Picture Oscar |
| The Robe | 1953 | First color CinemaScope film |
| Oklahoma! | 1955 | First major Hollywood musical in color |
| Lady and the Tramp | 1955 | First Disney animated film in CinemaScope |
| Around the World in 80 Days | 1956 | Epic color adventure film |
| Gigi | 1958 | Color musical set in turn-of-the-century Paris |
Advancements in cinematography, lighting, film stocks, and processing chemistry allowed filmmakers immense creative freedom with color. Audiences eagerly flocked to see bold visuals on the big screen.
Color on Television
While theaters embraced color films, most people still watched black and white television in the 1950s. Live TV shows were transmitted in black and white, and most filmed shows were originally shot that way as well.
Color was slow to catch on due to the complications of transmitting color signals along with the lack of color TV sets in homes. However, NBC made the first major steps by launching a partial color broadcasting schedule in 1954. Their extravagant musical comedy special Satins and Spurs, starring Betty Hutton, dazzled viewers with vibrant costumes and scenery.
Color TV sales began taking off in the mid-1960s. Networks expanded their color programming, including shows like The Jetsons and Star Trek. By 1967, all three major networks were airing full color prime time schedules. Seeing shows like I Love Lucy re-aired in color helped convince skeptics to embrace color TVs.
Film Genres Advanced by Color
While color itself was a revelation, it particularly elevated certain genres of film:
Musicals
Vibrant song-and-dance numbers were enhanced through creative uses of technicolor. Costume colors popped against intricately designed background sets.
Historical Epics
Films like Cleopatra (1963) used color to bring lavish recreations of the past to life in dazzling detail.
Westerns
Picturesque landscapes and rustic details looked magnificent in color. The huge skies, earth tones, and fiery sunsets gave Westerns a new depth.
Science Fiction
Futuristic tales like Fantastic Voyage (1966) seemed even more spectacular through color’s ability to vividly distinguish strange new worlds, gadgets, aliens, and special effects.
Horror
Color enabled horror directors to feature gory visuals, from chilling technicolor thrillers like Black Sunday (1960) to garish bloodbaths like The Wizard of Gore (1970).
Overall, color design greatly enhanced movies’ emotional impact. Directors took advantage of color psychology, using specific hues to influence audiences’ reactions.
Special Effects Innovation in Color
Color also opened up creative possibilities for special effects:
- Rear projection allowed actors to appear on colorful moving backgrounds.
- Matte painting enabled fantastical backdrops to be painted and layered in.
- Miniatures combined with live action created epic scenes of destruction and fantasy.
- Makeup and prosthetics were enhanced through bold and gruesome color.
- Traveling mattes allowed objects like lightsabers to layer color effects into scenes.
- Green screens permitted entire backgrounds to be filled in with color later.
This era was a playground for innovative directors like Ray Harryhausen and George Lucas to push practical and optical effects to new levels through color manipulation.
Evolution of Color Design
Color design itself evolved during this period:
| Era | Style | Characteristics |
|---|---|---|
| 1930s-1950s | Classic Technicolor | Very saturated reds, greens, and blues. Unnaturally vivid color. |
| 1950s-1960s | Metrocolor | More muted and naturalistic color palettes. |
| 1960s-1970s | Psychedelic Color | Wild, surreal colors. Florescent hues. |
| 1970s-1980s | Realism | Muted, earthy tones. Dingy look. |
Color design moved from flashy and fake looking to more grounded palettes mimicking real life. But some films still featured exaggerated color for emotional impact.
Digital Color vs. Film Color
Color design took another turn in the late 20th century with the shift from traditional celluloid film to digital cinematography. Shooting on digital video gave filmmakers immense flexibility with color correction, grading, and enhancement in post-production. But the look of color differed from film:
| Film Color | Digital Color |
|---|---|
| Smoother gradations between hues | More blocky bands of color |
| Unique color characteristics from film stock | Crisp, clean, homogeneous color |
| Warm, organic feel | Cooler, artificial feel |
| Subtle variations in exposure | Uniform, perfectly exposed |
Digital removed the physical limitations of film, but many argued it lost the artistic imperfections that gave film its soul. New digital color grading techniques aimed to mimic the look of celluloid. But the hyperreal possibilities of digital color also attracted directors like George Lucas to embrace this new medium.
Modern Color Design Trends
Today’s color palettes are bolder and more exaggerated, thanks to digital cinematography removing technical barriers. Common trends include:
- Highly selective palettes – Dominated by one or two colors
- Chiaroscuro shadowplay – Dramatic contrast between light and dark
- Cool blue or teal tones for sci-fi and fantasy
- Orange and blue complement to create visual impact
- Desaturation for serious drama
- Hyper saturation for fantasy
CGI also opens up infinite color possibilities via worlds created completely in the computer. The standard rules of reality no longer apply.
While black and white films are still made today for artistic effect, color is here to stay. The technologies and techniques will keep evolving, but color design will remain a crucial ingredient in cinematic storytelling. Understanding the history of color gives insight into just how revolutionary this technology was for both filmmakers and audiences eager for ever greater spectacle.
Conclusion
Color fundamentally transformed the film industry and the audience’s experience. The technological quest for color changed cameras, projectors, and processes. Painstaking early techniques gradually gave way to advanced cameras and film stocks that made color standard.
While black and white films held their own stylistic integrity, color opened up new creative dimensions. Filmmakers utilized color psychology and design to enhance emotion and spectacle. Digital formats brought yet another shift, with computerized color correcting and grading expanding possibilities exponentially. Color in movies went from single-hued novelties to the breathtaking cinematic worlds we see today.
